Methodology
Channel Considerations
Channel-Specific Modeling Considerations
Different advertising channels require specific modeling approaches due to their unique infrastructure, operational characteristics, and consumption patterns. This document details the methodology considerations for Linear TV, Traditional Radio, Digital Out-of-Home (DOOH), and Classic Out-of-Home (OOH). While these channels share some common principles, each has distinct lifecycle boundaries, data requirements, and default assumptions that reflect the nature of their delivery and usage.Linear TV
Definition and Scope
We classify Linear TV as content that is transmitted via traditional broadcast methods and follows a predetermined programming schedule.Glossary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| TV Network | The organization or company responsible for distributing TV content (e.g., BBC, NBC, Canal+). |
| TV Channel | A specific frequency within a TV network (e.g., BBC One, ESPN2).. |
| Broadcast Method | The type of infrastructure used to transmit Linear TV content (e.g., OTA/DTT, Cable, Satellite, IPTV). |
| Co-viewing Factor | An average number of viewers per TV device, used to estimate device-level reach from audience impressions. |
Definition of Broadcast methods
| Broadcast method | Equipment involved |
|---|---|
| Over-the-air (OTA) & Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT) | Transmitting towers, repeaters, household antennas… |
| Cable | Same as the Internet network (infrastructure is typically shared across telephone, television and Internet) |
| Satellite | Transmitting Satellite dishes, Satellite, Receiving satellite dishes, set top boxes |
| IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) | Internet network, set top boxes |
Boundaries of Measurement
The Scope3 Linear TV model focuses on estimating emissions coming from the distribution (broadcasting) and consumer viewing of television content and advertising.| Lifecycle Category | Emissions Source | Status | Includes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Media Production | Content production | Not Included | |
| Creative Production | Ad production | Not included | |
| Media Distribution | Corporate emissions from TV network | Included | |
| Media & Creative Distribution | Broadcast Signal preparation, transmission & reception | Included | Encoding & multiplexing OTA/DTT, cable, Satellite & IPTV networks (use phase & embodied) Household Equipment used for signal reception (use phase & embodied) |
| Media & Creative Consumer Device | TV viewing | Included | Television device (use phase & embodied) |
Emissions Calculation Methodology
Corporate Emissions
For Linear TV, we estimate corporate emissions per TV spot rather than per audience or household impression. We do this to avoid having differing numbers depending on fluctuating TV ratings. All other aspects of our calculations for corporate emissions remain as described in Corporate Emissions.Broadcast Signal Emissions
Encoding & Multiplexing
In A comparison of the carbon footprint of digital terrestrial television with video-on-demand the BBC estimated that their encoding & multiplexing facility required a power draw of 400kW to encode TV content for their 24 channels. We use this estimate to derive that it takes an average power draw of 16.7kW to encode and multiplex TV content for one channel (no matter the number of viewing households). For TV networks and/or channels where actual power usage data is available, we use those values instead of the average.Signal Transmission
Energy Use
For each TV broadcast method we consider a fixed energy consumption required to broadcast the signal no matter the number of viewing households. Different TV broadcast methods have varying power efficiency in different countries but for now we do not differentiate between countries. For each TV broadcast method we have derived power draw estimates from annual energy consumption, either from primary sourced energy consumption data shared with Scope3 by network operators or from the BBC paper.| TV Broadcast Method | Energy consuming sources | Required Power for signal transmission of 1 TV channel | Source(s) | Assumptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| OTA/DTT | Over the air transmission network | 165 kW | Terrestrial Network operators | - National distribution |
| Cable | Cable network | 16 kW | BBC paper | - TV represents 53% of cable network usage - The Virgin Media cable network provider in the UK hosts 400 channels. |
| Satellite | Uplink transmission from TV station tower to satellite | 3.15kW | BBC paper | - No emissions coming from downlink transmission from space satellite to household dishes (satellites being powered by the sun) - Assuming equal energy usage across all BBC’s 24 channels |
Embodied Emissions
In the absence of data specific to each TV broadcast method, we utilize our estimates of the embodied emissions as the fixed Internet network (0.00000443 gCO2e per kb) to derive the embodied emissions of each broadcast method per second, assuming 6Mbps per transmitter per channel, across 1000 transmitters.Broadcast Method Usage
The prevalence of each TV broadcast method varies by TV network and geographically. For example, in France OTA/DTT and IPTV are the most widely used broadcast methods in terms of households, whereas in Germany satellite is the most prevalent method. We apply a country-specific ratio of broadcast methods for major markets, and use a global average for other countries.| Country | % of households using OTA/DTT | % of households using cable | % of households using satellite | % of households using IPTV |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Global Defaults | 26% | 29% | 20% | 25% |
| USA | 19% | 43% | 17% | 21% |
| UK | 41% | 9% | 23% | 27% |
| France | 46% | 0% | 8% | 46% |
| Germany | 3% | 42% | 46% | 9% |
| Australia | 48% | 0% | 8% | 44% |
Household Equipment Emissions
Energy Consumption
We consider some household equipment “passive”, meaning that they do not require any power to receive the broadcast signal, and others “active”.| Component | Broadcasting Method(s) | Global % of household with that equipment for that broadcast method | Active or Passive | Estimated Power Draw | Source(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Household antena | OTA/DTT | 100% | Passive | 0W | - |
| Satellite dish | Satellite | 100% | Passive | 0W | - |
| Low-Noise Block Downconverter (LNB) | Satellite | 100% | Active | 5W | Average across various manufacturers’ specifications |
| Signal Amplifier | OTA/DTT & Satellite | 20% | Active | 5W | BBC paper |
| Decoder / STB | Cable, Satellite & IPTV | 100% | Active | 16W | BBC paper |
| Co-axial cable | Cable & IPTV | 100% | Passive | 0W | - |
| Home router | IPTV | 100% | Active | 5W | See Data Transfer |
Embodied Emissions
Similarly to how we model consumer devices (see Consumer Devices), we estimate Production Energy per Use Second (PEPS) for each and every piece of household equipment.| Component | Broadcasting Method(s) | Global % of household with that equipment for that broadcast method | Equipment use Allocation % for Linear TV | Lifetime Impact kgCO2e (excluding use) | Usage (h/day) | Years in use | PEPS (gCO2e/s) | Mass (grams) | Example Unit |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Household antena | OTA/DTT | 100% | 100% | 127 | 3.9 | 20 | 0.001239121 | 860 | Clearstream 2MAX HDTV Antenna |
| Satellite dish | Satellite | 100% | 100% | 592 | 3.9 | 20 | 0.005776061 | 4000 | Cahors SMC65 White Fibreglass Satellite Dish |
| Low-Noise Block Downconverter (LNB) | Satellite | 100% | 100% | 37 | 3.9 | 20 | 0.000361004 | 250 | Universal 0.1dB Satellite LNB |
| Signal Amplifier | OTA/DTT & Satellite | 20% | 100% | 59 | 3.9 | 20 | 0.000115131 | 400 | Antenna Signal Amplifier |
| Decoder / STB | Cable, Satellite & IPTV | 100% | 100% | 265 | 3.9 | 20 | 0.005171135 | 1790 | Technisat Technicorder ISIO SC |
| Co-axial cable | Cable & IPTV | 100% | 100% | 18 | 3.9 | 20 | 0.000175623 | 120 | CIMPLE CO Coaxial Cable |
| Home router | IPTV | 100% | 50% | 45.9 | 24 | 5 | 0.000145548 | 310 | Fritz!Box 7530 |
Summary
| Broadcast Method | Variable Power per viewing device | PEPs (gCO2e/s) |
|---|---|---|
| OTA/DTT | 1W | 0.00135 |
| Cable | 16W | 0.00535 |
| Satellite | 22W | 0.0114 |
| IPTV | 21W | 0.00549 |
TV Viewing Emissions
We follow the same methodology as described in Consumer Devices, accounting for both use phase (energy consumption) and embodied emission (production & disposal). We adapt the “synthetic TV system” for Linear TV accordingly:- Set-top boxes (STBs) and decoders are excluded, as they are already accounted for under household equipment.
- We retain the assumption from Urban et al. that 7% of televisions come with a sound bar.
| Device | Power (W) | PEPS (gCO2e/s) |
|---|---|---|
| TV System (Linear TV) | 75 | 0.0096 |
Estimating the number of TV impressions
We estimate the number of TV devices reached using a co-viewing factor of 1.5, in line with published audience measurement benchmarks across major markets. This means that for every 1.5 audience impressions, we assume one TV device was used to view the content. Example:- Input: 1,000,000 audience impressions for a TV spot
- Device count estimate: 1,000,000 ÷ 1.5 = 666,667 TV devices
Digital Out-of-Home (DOOH)
Definition and Scope
Digital Out-of-Home (DOOH) refers to digital displays used for advertising in public spaces, such as billboards, transit displays, and retail screens. Unlike Linear TV, DOOH screens are owned or leased by media owners who have direct control over their operation and maintenance.Boundaries of Measurement
DOOH screens, like consumer devices, require energy to display an ad. Energy consumption during the use phase is in fact the highest source of emissions. However, on the contrary to consumer devices, billboards are owned or leased by media owners who therefore have a high level of operational control over the screen attributes that influence embodied and energy related emissions (venue category, manufacturer, model, size, location and positioning, operating hours, brightness settings etc…). For that reason, we are including emissions from screens’ energy usage and production to “media distribution”.| Emissions source | Lifecycle category | Status |
|---|---|---|
| Screens’ embodied emissions | Media Distribution | In-development |
| Screens’ energy consumption | Media Distribution | Included |
| Corporate emissions | Media Distribution | Included |
| Use of Ad Technology | Ad Selection | In-development |
| Creative data transfers | Creative Distribution | Included |
| Screens’ recycling/disposal | Disposal | To be considered |
Emissions Calculation Methodology
Screen Emissions
Embodied Emissions
Coming soonEnergy Consumption
On the contrary to consumer device emissions, we have found no credible research paper describing the power draw of large digital billboards. As such, we estimate for individual screens based on a variety of input data sources (listed in order from most accurate to least accurate):- Electricity metres installed on the screens themselves and monitoring power draw in near real-time.
- Power bills received by media owners on a monthly, quaterly or yearly basis, for a group of or for individual screens.
- Technical specifications from screen manufacturers like Daktronics, Samsung or Panasonic. We have found that these often document maximum power draw (instead of average power draw), which can lead to an over-estimation of energy consumption.
- Extrapolation based on physical dimensions and one of the above data point for screens from the same media owner.
- Extrapolation based on physical dimensions and venue type, off the back of data for 500k+ screens kindly provided to us by early partners (including DOOH programmatic platform Hivestack and DOOH media owners JCDecaux ANZ, Go Media and Lumo).
Corporate Emissions
See Corporate EmissionsAd Selection Emissions
Unlike other digital channels, DOOH lacks a standard such as ads.txt that enables media owners to disclose the vendors involved in their monetization waterfall. This makes mapping the ad tech graph more challenging. We encourage DOOH media owners to share this information with us via Ad Stack Declaration. Where no declared data is available, and after consultation with the media owner, we assume the presence of one ad server and five SSPs called by that ad server for each ad request.Creative Data Transfer Emissions
See Emissions from Data TransferAdditional Considerations
Impression Multiplier
One key difference between the digital out-of-home channel and others is its one-to-many nature, meaning that most likely one ad play can be viewed by multiple individuals around the screen. For this reason, our modelling is done “per play” and translated to “per impression” through the use of a screen specific average impression multiplier provided by partners (media owners and platforms). When no impression multiplier data is provided to us for a given screen, we once again estimate that value to be the 80th percentile amongst screens that media owner and/or venue category and/or country (based on statistical relevance).Classic Out-Of-Home
Definition and Scope
Classic OOH includes outdoor advertising displayed on non-digital panels such as posters, billboards, and transit wraps. Unlike DOOH, these formats rely on physical assets printed on paper, vinyl, or similar materials and mounted on a fixed structure. This category excludes print media such as magazines or newspapers. In our data model, the primary object representing inventory is the panel (sometimes called a “frame” in certain markets), which describes the physical structure where ads are displayed. For this channel, emissions come from tangible processes like material extraction, printing, transportation, installation, and disposal — introducing lifecycle considerations unique to physical media.. Transient OOH advertising - displayed on moving vehicles such as buses, taxis, or trains — is also covered under this model when the vehicle’s primary purpose is not advertising.Measurement Boundaries & GMSF Alignment
Our classic OOH model aligns closely with the Global Media Sustainability Framework (GMSF) and introduces lifecycle categories that reflect the physical nature of this channel. Unlike digital media, classic OOH requires consideration of ad production, logistics, and end-of-life treatment of physical assets. The model aligns with GMSF and covers the following categories:| Emissions source | Description |
|---|---|
| Display structure | Amortized emissions from manufacturing the supporting structure over its expected lifetime. |
| Creation | Emissions from printing the advertisement and, where relevant, producing materials used for display. |
| Distribution | Transportation and storage of physical assets prior to installation. |
| Operations | Energy consumption for illumination and mechanical rotation during the display period. |
| Disposal | Emissions from transporting and processing ad materials and structures at the end of their use, including recycling or landfill. |
| Corporate emissions | Corporate emissions from the media owner. |
Emissions Calculation Methodology
Emissions for classic OOH are calculated using a combination of panel-level data (when available) and venue-type or country-level averages as fallback. We allocate emissions across lifecycle categories using campaign duration and share of time on each panel. Where detailed attributes such as size, illumination, or transportation distances are provided, calculations are more precise.Panel Object
To support granular measurement, classic OOH introduces a panel object (similar to the “screen” object used for DOOH). A panel represents the physical structure where ads are displayed and carries attributes relevant for emissions estimation:| Attributes | Description |
|---|---|
| Panel Identifier | Identifier of the panel, provided by the media owner |
| Media Owner | Name of the organization that owns the panel |
| Country / Region / Postcode | Location of the panel. |
| Physical Width / Physical Height | Dimensions of the panel in centimeters. |
| Average Daily Contacts | Average number of people exposed to the ad per day (if available). |
| Expected Lifetime Years | Expected lifetime of the panel for amortizing embodied emissions. |
| Average Daily Illumination Hours | Average daily hours of illumination. |
| Illumination Power Draw | Power draw (in watts) for illumination. |
| Energy Consumption Per Mechanical Rotation | Energy required for a single mechanical rotation (if applicable). |
| Mechanical Rotations Per Day | Average number of rotations per day (if applicable). |
| Average Structure Production Emissions | Total embodied emissions of the display structure (if available), excluding end of life emissions. |
| Average Ad Production Emissions | Emissions from ad asset production (if printed by media owner). |
| Recycling Percentage of Structure | Percentage of the structure expected to be recycled at end of life. |
| Recycling Percentage of Ad | Percentage of the ad expected to be recycled at end of life. |
| Distance Attributes | Distances for logistics: printing → storage, storage → panel, panel → disposal. |
Possible Improvements
This is the first version of our classic OOH emissions model, and we expect it to evolve as better data and industry standards emerge. Key areas of focus for future iterations could include:- Refined recycling modeling: incorporating more accurate data on recycling rates and emissions from different end-of-life scenarios for both ad materials and structures.
- Material-specific defaults: differentiating production and disposal impacts based on material type (e.g., paper vs. vinyl).
- Transport mode-specific defaults: Accounting for the type of vehicles used during installation and disposal logistics, including differences between electric, hybrid, and fuel-powered fleets.
- Regionalized defaults: applying localized emission factors for printing, storage, and disposal processes, reflecting regional infrastructure and grid intensity.
- Integration with industry data: leveraging data shared by media owners and OOH associations to replace assumptions with verified inputs.
Traditional Radio
Definition and Scope
We classify Traditional Radio as content that is transmitted via traditional broadcast methods and follows a predetermined programming schedule.Glossary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Radio Network | The organization or company responsible for distributing radio content (e.g., BBC). |
| Radio Station | A specific frequency within a radio network (e.g., BBC Radio 1). |
| Broadcast Method | The type of infrastructure used to transmit broadcast audio content (e.g., OTA/DAB, FM, Satellite). |
| Co-listening Factor | An average number of listeners per radio device, used to estimate device-level reach from audience impressions. |
Definition of Broadcast methods
| Broadcast method | Definition |
|---|---|
| FM | For Frequency Modulation: Radio broadcasting that varies the frequency of the carrier wave. |
| AM | For Amplitude Modulation: Radio broadcasting that varies the amplitude of the carrier wave; enables long-range coverage. |
| Over-the-air (OTA) | Includes terrestrial digital radio broadcasting methods such as DAB(+), DRM, HD Radio, ISDB-Tsb |
| Satellite | Includes large-scale, satellite radio services like SiriusXM |
Measurement Boundaries & GMSF Alignment
The Scope3 Traditional Radio model focuses on estimating emissions coming from the distribution (broadcasting) and consumer listening to audio content and advertising.| Lifecycle Category | Emissions Source | Status | Includes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Media Production | Content production | Not Included | |
| Creative Production | Ad production | Not included | |
| Tech Manipulation | Post-production storage & Others technical operations | Not included | |
| Media Distribution | Corporate emissions from radio network | Included | |
| Media & Creative Distribution | Broadcast Signal preparation & transmission | Included | Encoding, multiplexing and transmission infrastructure (use phase & embodied) |
| Media & Creative Consumer Device | Reception & Audio listening | Included | Radio device used for reception (use phase & embodied) |
Emissions Calculation Methodology
Corporate Emissions
Similarly to Linear TV, we estimate corporate emissions per radio spot rather than per audience or household impression. We do this to avoid having differing numbers depending on fluctuating Radio ratings. All other aspects of our calculations for corporate emissions remain as described in Corporate Emissions.Broadcast Signal Emissions
In The energy footprint of BBC radio services: now and in the future (2020) the BBC provides estimated energy use for each broadcasting method for BBC radio in 2018, broken down by process: signal preparation, signal distribution (referred to as Transmission in the report), and consumption.Signal Preparation
The BBC estimates that signal preparation is marginal for all audio broadcasting methods. We derived average defaults from our Linear TV methodology. For networks and/or channels where actual power usage data is available, we use those values instead of the average.Signal Transmission
Energy Use & Embodied Emissions For each audio broadcast method, we assume a fixed energy consumption required to transmit the signal, regardless of the number of radios receiving it. Different audio broadcast methods exhibit varying power efficiency across countries, but for now we do not differentiate between countries. For each audio broadcast method, we derived power draw estimates from annual energy consumption, either based on primary data shared with Scope3 by network operators or from publicly available sources. In the absence of embodied emissions data specific to each audio broadcast method, we derived default values from various studies, including, in addition to the BBC paper:- ICT Impact study, Final report, VHK and Viegand Maagøe for the European Commission - 2020
- Study of the Environmental Impact of Audiovisual Usage in France - ADEME ARCEP (FR) - 2024
| Audio Broadcast Method | Energy consuming sources | Signal Transmission Power per Radio Channel | Embodied emissions gCO2e/s | Source(s) | Assumptions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FM | FM transmission infrastructure | 15 kW | 7g | ADEME ARCEP, BBC | |
| AM | AM transmission infrastructure | 62 kW | 10g | ADEME ARCEP, BBC | |
| OTA/DAB | Over the air transmission network | 5 kW | 5g | ADEME ARCEP, BBC, Bayerischer Rundfunk, MDR, GatesAir | Estimated to be more efficient than FM |
| Satellite | Uplink transmission from Radio station tower to satellite | 3.15 kW | 6g | BBC | Similar to Linear TV |
Broadcast Method Usage
The prevalence of each audio broadcast method varies geographically. For example, in France FM is the most widely used broadcast methods in terms of consumption, whereas in the UK OTA/DAB+ is the most prevalent method (Ofcom). We apply a country-specific ratio of broadcast methods for major markets, and use a global average for other countries.| Country | % of total radio listening FM | % of total radio listening AM | % of total radio listening OTA/DAB | % of total radio listening Satellite | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Global Defaults | 60% | 15% | 20% | 5% | |
| FR | 95% | insignificant | 5% | 0% | ADEME ARCEP |
| UK | 39% | grouped with FM | 61% | 0% | Ofcom / RAJAR |
| AU | 75% | grouped with FM | 25% | 0% | GFK Radio Ratings |
digital-audio channel. We will continue to add country-specific distributions as we obtain additional data.